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Renaissance humanism - Wikipedia
Renaissance humanism was a revival in the study of classical antiquityat first in Italy and then spreading across Western Europe in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries.
During the period, the term humanist Italian : umanista referred to bruno de man phd thesis and students of the humanitiesknown as the studia humanitatiswhich included grammarbruno de man phd thesis, rhetorichistorybruno de man phd thesis, poetryand moral philosophy. It was not until the 19th century that this began to be called humanism instead of the original humanitiesand later by the retronym Renaissance humanism to distinguish it from later humanist developments.
Their vision was to return ad fontes "to the sources" to the simplicity of the New Testament, bypassing the complexities of medieval theology. Renaissance humanism was a response to what came to be depicted by later whig historians as the "narrow pedantry" associated with medieval scholasticism, bruno de man phd thesis. Humanism, whilst set up by a small elite who had access to books and education, was intended as a cultural mode to influence all of society.
It was a program to revive the cultural legacy, literary legacy, and moral philosophy of classical antiquity. There were important centres of humanism in FlorenceNaplesRomeVeniceGenoaMantuaFerraraand Urbino. Very broadly, the project bruno de man phd thesis the Italian Renaissance humanists of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was the studia humanitatis : the study of the humanities.
This project sought to recover the culture of ancient Greece and Rome through its literature and philosophy and to use this classical revival to imbue the ruling classes with the moral attitudes of said ancients—a project James Hankins calls one of "virtue politics".
According to one scholar of the movement. Early Italian humanism, which in many respects continued the grammatical and rhetorical bruno de man phd thesis of the Middle Ages, not merely provided the old Trivium with a new and more ambitious name Studia humanitatisbut also increased its actual scope, content and significance bruno de man phd thesis the curriculum of the schools and universities and in its own extensive literary production.
The studia humanitatis excluded logic, but they added to the traditional grammar and rhetoric not only history, Greekand moral philosophy, but also made poetry, once a sequel of grammar and rhetoric, the most important member of the whole group. However, in investigating this definition in his article "The changing concept of the studia humanitatis in the bruno de man phd thesis Renaissance," Bruno de man phd thesis G.
Kohl provides an account of the various meanings the term took on over the course of the period: [6]. Tuscan humanist Coluccio Salutati popularized the term in the s, using the phrase bruno de man phd thesis refer to culture and learning as a guide to moral life, with a focus on rhetoric and oration. Over the years, he came to use it specifically in literary praise of his contemporaries, but later viewed the studia humanitatis as a means of editing and restoring ancient texts and even understanding scripture and other divine literature.
But it was not until the beginning of the quattrocento fifteenth century that the studia humanitatis began to be associated with particular academic disciplines, when Pier Paolo Vergerioin his De ingenuis moribusstressed the importance of rhetoric, history, and moral philosophy as a means of moral improvement.
By the middle of the century, the term was adopted more formally, as it started to be used in Bologna and Padua in reference to university courses that taught these disciplines as well as Latin poetry, before then spreading northward throughout Italy. Still, it has referred consistently to a mode of learning—formal or not—that results in one's moral edification. In the last years of the 13th century and in the first decades of the 14th centurythe cultural climate was changing in some European regions.
The rediscovery, study, and renewed interest in authors who had been forgotten, and in the classical world that they represented, inspired a flourishing return to linguistic, stylistic and literary models of antiquity.
There emerged a consciousness of the need for a cultural renewal, which sometimes also meant a detachment from contemporary culture.
Manuscripts and inscriptions were in high demand and graphic models were also imitated. By the 14th century some of the first humanists were great collectors of antique manuscriptsincluding PetrarchGiovanni BoccaccioColuccio Salutatiand Poggio Bracciolini. Of the four, Petrarch was dubbed the "Father of Humanism," as he was the one who first encouraged the study of pagan civilizations and the teaching of classical virtues as a means of preserving Christianity. In Italy, the humanist educational program won rapid acceptance and, by the midth century, many of the upper classes had received humanist educations, possibly in addition to traditional scholastic ones.
Some of the highest officials of the Catholic Church were humanists with the resources to amass important libraries. Such was Cardinal Basilios Bessariona convert to the Catholic Church from Greek Orthodoxywho was considered for the papacyand was one of the most learned scholars of his time. There were several 15th-century and early 16th-century humanist Popes [9] one of whom, Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini Pope Pius IIwas a prolific author and wrote a treatise on The Education of Boys.
The migration waves of Byzantine Greek scholars and émigrés in the period following the Crusader sacking of Constantinople and the end of the Byzantine Empire in was a very welcome addition to the Latin texts scholars like Petrarch had found in monastic libraries [11] for the revival of Greek literature and science via their greater familiarity with ancient Greek works. The Italian humanism spread northward to FranceGermanythe Low CountriesPoland-Lithuania, Hungary and England with the adoption of large-scale printing afterbruno de man phd thesis, and it became associated with the Reformation.
In France, pre-eminent humanist Guillaume Budé — applied the philological methods of Italian humanism to the study of antique coinage and to legal historycomposing a detailed commentary on Justinian's Code.
Budé was a royal absolutist and not a republican like the early Italian umanisti who was active in civic life, serving as a diplomat for François I and helping to found the Collège des Lecteurs Royaux later the Collège de France. Meanwhile, Marguerite de Navarrethe sister of François I, bruno de man phd thesis, was a poetnovelistand religious mystic [14] who gathered around her and protected a circle of vernacular poets and writers, including Clément MarotPierre de Ronsardand François Rabelais.
Many humanists were churchmen, most notably Pope Pius II, Sixtus IVand Leo X[15] [16] and there was often patronage of humanists by senior church figures. The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy describes the rationalism of ancient writings as having tremendous impact on Renaissance scholars:. Here, one felt no weight of the supernatural pressing on the human mind, bruno de man phd thesis, demanding homage and allegiance.
Humanity—with all bruno de man phd thesis distinct capabilities, talents, worries, problems, possibilities—was the center of interest. It has been said that medieval thinkers philosophised on their knees, but, bolstered by the new studies, they dared to stand up and to rise to full stature. Infor example, Poggio Bracciolini discovered the manuscript of LucretiusDe rerum naturawhich had been lost for centuries and which contained an explanation of Epicurean doctrinethough at the time this was not commented on much by Renaissance scholars, who confined themselves to remarks about Lucretius's grammar and syntax.
Only in did French commentator Denys Lambin —72 announce in the preface to the work that "he regarded Lucretius's Epicurean ideas as 'fanciful, absurd, and opposed to Christianity'. Charles Trinkhaus regards Valla's "epicureanism" as a ploy, not seriously meant by Valla, but designed to refute Stoicism, which he regarded together with epicureanism as equally inferior to Christianity.
If people who live agreeably are Epicureansnone are more truly Epicurean than the righteous and godly. And if it is names that bother us, no one better deserves the name of Epicurean than the revered founder and head of the Christian philosophy Christfor in Greek epikouros means "helper".
He alone, when the law of Nature was all but blotted out by sins, when the law of Moses incited to lists rather than cured them, bruno de man phd thesis, when Satan ruled in the world unchallenged, brought timely aid to perishing humanity. Completely mistaken, therefore, are those who talk in their foolish fashion about Christ's having been sad and gloomy in character and calling upon us to follow a dismal mode of life. On the bruno de man phd thesis, he alone shows the most enjoyable life of all and the one most full of true pleasure.
This passage exemplifies the way in which the humanists saw pagan classical workssuch as the philosophy of Epicurusas being in harmony with their interpretation of Christianity. Renaissance Neo-Platonists such as Marsilio Ficino whose translations of Plato's works into Latin were still used into the 19th century attempted to reconcile Platonism with Christianity, according to the suggestions of early Church Fathers Lactantius bruno de man phd thesis Saint Augustine.
In this spirit, Pico della Mirandola attempted to construct a syncretism of religions and philosophies with Christianity, but his work did not win favor with the church authorities, who rejected it because of his views on magic. Historian Steven Kreis expresses a widespread view derived from the 19th-century Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardtwhen he writes that:.
The period from the fourteenth century to the seventeenth worked in favor of the general emancipation of the individual. The city-states of northern Bruno de man phd thesis had come into contact with the diverse customs of the East, and gradually permitted expression in matters of taste and dress.
The writings of Dante, and particularly the doctrines of Petrarch and humanists like Machiavelli, emphasized the virtues of intellectual freedom and individual expression. In the essays of Montaigne the individualistic view of life received perhaps the most persuasive and eloquent statement in the history of literature and philosophy. Bruno de man phd thesis noteworthy trends in Renaissance humanism were Renaissance Neo-Platonism and Hermeticismwhich through the works of figures like Nicholas of KuesGiordano BrunoCornelius AgrippaCampanella and Pico della Bruno de man phd thesis sometimes came close to constituting a new religion itself.
Of these two, Hermeticism has had great continuing influence in Western thought, while the former mostly dissipated as an intellectual trend, leading to movements in Western esotericism such as Theosophy and New Age thinking. Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age. Though humanists continued to use their scholarship in the service of the church into the middle of the sixteenth century and beyond, the sharply confrontational religious atmosphere following the Reformation resulted in the Counter-Reformation that sought to silence challenges to Catholic theology[26] with similar efforts among the Protestant denominations.
However, a number of humanists joined the Reformation movement and took over leadership functions, for example, Philipp MelanchthonUlrich ZwingliMartin LutherHenry VIIIJohn Calvinand William Tyndale.
With the Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trentpositions hardened and a strict Catholic orthodoxy based on scholastic philosophy was imposed. Some humanists, even moderate Catholics such as Erasmus, risked being declared heretics for their perceived criticism of the church, bruno de man phd thesis. In he left for Basel and worked at the University of Basel for several years.
The historian of the Renaissance Sir John Hale cautions against too direct a linkage between Renaissance humanism and modern uses of the term humanism: "Renaissance humanism must be kept free from any hint of either 'humanitarianism' or 'humanism' in its modern sense of rational, non-religious approach to life the word 'humanism' will mislead if it is bruno de man phd thesis in opposition to a Christianity its students in the main wished to supplement, not contradict, through their patient excavation of the sources of ancient God-inspired wisdom.
Hans Baron was the inventor of the now ubiquitous term "civic humanism. As argued in his chef-d'œuvreThe Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Classicism and Tyrannythe German historian thought that civic humanism originated in aroundafter the great struggles between Florence and Visconti-led Milan in the s.
He considered Petrarch's humanism to be a rhetorical, superficial project, and viewed this new strand to be one that abandoned the feudal and supposedly "otherworldly" i. Even in the s, historians Philip Jones and Peter Herde [30] found Baron's praise of "republican" humanists naive, arguing that republics were far less liberty-driven than Baron had believed, and were practically as undemocratic as monarchies, bruno de man phd thesis. James Hankins adds that the disparity in political values between the humanists employed by oligarchies and those employed by princes was not particularly notable, as all of Baron's civic ideals were exemplified by humanists serving various types of government.
In so arguing, he asserts that a "political reform program is central to the humanist movement founded by Petrarch. But it is not a 'republican' project in Baron's sense of republic; it is not an ideological product associated with a particular regime type.
Two renowned Renaissance scholars, Eugenio Garin and Paul Oskar Kristeller collaborated with one another throughout their careers. But while the two historians were on good terms, they fundamentally disagreed on the nature of Renaissance humanism.
Kristeller affirmed that Renaissance humanism used to be viewed just as a project of Classical revival, bruno de man phd thesis, bruno de man phd thesis that led to great increase in Classical scholarship.
Garin, bruno de man phd thesis, on the other hand, viewed philosophy itself as being ever-evolving, each form of philosophy being inextricable from the practices of the thinkers of its period, bruno de man phd thesis.
He thus considered the Italian humanists' break from Scholasticism and newfound freedom to be perfectly in line with this broader sense of philosophy, bruno de man phd thesis. During the period in which they argued over these differing views, there was a broader cultural conversation happening regarding Humanism: one revolving around Jean-Paul Sartre and Martin Heidegger.
InSartre published a work called "L'existentialisme est un humanisme ," in which he outlined his conception of existentialism as revolving around the belief that " existence comes before essence "; that man "first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world — and defines himself afterwards," making himself and giving himself purpose.
He also explicitly criticized Italian Renaissance humanism in the letter. Hankins summarizes the Kristeller v. The unashamedly humanistic flavor of classical writings had a tremendous impact on Renaissance scholar. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Revival in the bruno de man phd thesis of classical antiquity. This article is about the study of the humanities during the Renaissance.
It is not to be confused with the broader human-centered philosophy, Humanism. The School of Athens —Raphael. Elizabethan Welsh Scottish Anglo-Irish.
Metaphysical poets English Renaissance theatre. Pastoral Morality History. Tragedy Revenge. Czech German Swiss Slovak Sorbian Romanian Bohorič alphabet. Danish Faroese Norwegian Swedish Finnish Icelandic. Main article: List of Renaissance humanists. Leonardo da Vinci 's Vitruvian Man c. Renaissance humanism in Northern Europe in France Humanist Manifesto. Secular humanism.
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